This examines the Carta Marina, its cartographer, and geographical discoveries. It presents the extraordinary creatures and cultural details that brought sixteenth-century Scandinavia to life.
Among the great cartographic achievements of the sixteenth century, few maps rival for visual appeal. The Carta Marina of 1539 stands as a historically significant and endlessly fascinating work. This monumental woodcut map of northern Europe was created by Olaus Magnus. Olaus Magnus was a Swedish ecclesiastic and scholar. The map shows geographical observation, inherited knowledge, folklore, natural history, and artistic imagination.
At a time when much of northern Europe remained poorly represented in the geographical literature available to scholars elsewhere on the continent, Magnus produced a map that offered an unusually detailed portrait of Scandinavia and its surrounding waters. It depicted the kingdoms of Sweden and Norway, Finland, Denmark, Iceland, and the northern Atlantic, while incorporating representations of settlements, mountains, rivers, ships, marine life, and the everyday activities of northern peoples.
Yet the Carta Marina is much more than a geographical document. Its waters teem with fantastical sea creatures, its landscapes contain scenes of hunting and commerce, and its illustrations reveal how Renaissance Europeans understood the natural world. The map is simultaneously a geographical reference, a visual encyclopedia, and a cultural statement about a region that was still unfamiliar to many Europeans.
The 1539 Carta Marina is therefore an especially valuable object for the history of cartography. It illustrates not only what sixteenth-century Europeans knew about the North, but also how they represented, interpreted, and sometimes imagined the geographical world around them.
Olaus Magnus: The man behind the map
Olaus Magnus (1490–1557) was born in Linköping, Sweden, into a relatively prosperous family. His birth name was Olof Månsson, with Magnus serving as the Latinized form of his surname. He became a Catholic clergyman, scholar, diplomat, and eventually the last Catholic Archbishop of Uppsala.
His older brother, Johannes Magnus, was also an important ecclesiastical figure and served as Archbishop of Uppsala. The brothers played significant roles in Swedish religious and political affairs during a period of profound upheaval.
Olaus’s interest in geography developed through education, travel, and diplomatic service. His journeys through Scandinavia and the Baltic region gave him opportunities to observe the geography, settlements, customs, and economic activities of northern Europe. He also gathered information from travelers, merchants, fishermen, and other individuals familiar with the region.
In 1523, Olaus was sent on a diplomatic mission to Rome on behalf of the Swedish government. His subsequent career became closely connected with the religious upheavals of the Protestant Reformation. In 1524, he traveled to Rome with his brother Johannes to negotiate with the papacy. Political and religious developments eventually made a return to Sweden impossible for the two brothers.
Olaus spent much of the remainder of his life in exile, living in various Italian cities and devoting himself to the documentation of Scandinavian history and geography. The Reformation had transformed Sweden into a Protestant kingdom, leaving the brothers increasingly isolated from their homeland.
This geographical and cultural distance may have helped shape Olaus’s ambitions. Living in Italy, he became an advocate for a part of Europe that was often misunderstood or inadequately represented in the geographical literature of the Mediterranean world.
His principal cartographic undertaking would occupy approximately twelve years of his life. The result was the Carta Marina, printed in Venice in 1539. According to Uppsala University Library, the map was preceded by years of research and preparation, and it was accompanied by explanatory descriptions in Latin, Italian, and German.
The making of the Carta Marina
The full title of the map is: Carta Marina et Descriptio Septentrionalium Terrarum ac Mirabilium Rerum in Eis Contentarum Diligentissime Elaborata.
A translation is approximately: Marine Map and Description of the Northern Lands and the Marvelous Things Contained Therein, Most Carefully Prepared.
The title is significant because it identifies the map as something more than a conventional geographical representation. Magnus intended to describe both the northern lands and the remarkable things found within them.
The map was printed in Venice in 1539, using nine separate woodcut blocks. When assembled, the sheets formed a monumental image measuring approximately 170 by 125 centimeters (about 67 by 49 inches). This was an impressive physical object for the sixteenth century, particularly considering the technical demands of producing such a large and detailed woodcut.
The nine-sheet arrangement also meant that the map could function as a substantial wall map rather than a small portable geographical reference. Its scale allowed Magnus to incorporate hundreds of place names, explanatory inscriptions, illustrations, and geographical details.
The map’s geographical coverage extended from Greenland and the North Atlantic in the west to Russia in the east, and from northern Germany in the south toward the Barents Sea in the north. Its representation of the Scandinavian peninsula, the Baltic region, and the surrounding seas was unusually comprehensive for its time.
The work was not created in isolation. Magnus drew upon earlier geographical authorities, classical literature, contemporary maps, personal observations, and information collected from people familiar with northern Europe.
Among the important predecessors was the map of Jacob Ziegler, published in 1532. Ziegler had made an important contribution to the geographical representation of Scandinavia, and the Magnus brothers had previously supplied him with information. Magnus also drew upon the geographical tradition associated with Claudius Clavus and the works of Ptolemy.
The Carta Marina therefore represents an important stage in the transition from inherited medieval geographical traditions toward more systematic geographical observation and description.
The geographical content: Scandinavia takes shape
One of the most important achievements of the Carta Marina is its representation of Scandinavia as a recognizable geographical region.
Earlier maps of northern Europe frequently suffered from considerable distortions. The Scandinavian peninsula might be represented with an inaccurate outline, confused geographical relationships, or incomplete information about its northern extent. Islands were sometimes misplaced, and the relationship between the Scandinavian mainland and neighboring territories was not always clear.
Magnus improved upon much of this earlier cartography.
The Norwegian coastline is particularly striking. Its long, irregular outline, numerous fjords, and extensive coastal indentations receive considerable attention. The map also depicts Sweden and Finland with a degree of geographical coherence that was unusual for the period.
The Baltic Sea occupies a prominent position, with the surrounding coastlines and islands forming an important part of the composition. Denmark and its islands are represented in a way that improved upon earlier geographical treatments, while the northern German coastline establishes the southern limit of the map’s principal geographical subject.
The map also includes Iceland, Greenland, the Faroe Islands, the Orkney Islands, and the Shetland Islands. Their inclusion reflects the importance of the North Atlantic as a geographical and commercial region rather than simply an empty expanse of water.
The representation of Finland is particularly noteworthy. It appears as a distinct geographical region rather than being treated as an indistinguishable extension of the Scandinavian peninsula. The map also gives considerable attention to the northern reaches of Scandinavia and the lands bordering Russia.
For modern viewers, the map’s geographical accuracy is uneven. Some coastlines and geographical relationships are surprisingly recognizable, while others reflect the limitations of sixteenth-century surveying and the geographical information available to Magnus.
It is important, however, to evaluate the map within its historical context. Magnus did not have access to modern triangulation, accurate longitude determination, aerial photography, or systematic national surveys. His achievement was to assemble an enormous quantity of geographical information into a coherent representation of a region that was still poorly understood by many European scholars.
A map filled with life: people, animals, and commerce
The Carta Marina is particularly unusual because its geographical information is accompanied by an extensive visual account of northern life.
Across the land areas, Magnus included illustrations of people engaged in activities associated with their environment and economy. Hunting, fishing, livestock, transportation, and trade all appear within the map’s visual landscape.
These illustrations are not merely decorative additions. They help explain how people interacted with the geography of northern Europe.
In the northern regions, for example, the map depicts reindeer and other animals associated with the Arctic and sub-Arctic environment. Hunting and the use of animals for transportation are represented as important aspects of everyday life.
The illustrations of northern peoples also communicate the author’s understanding of regional differences in clothing, customs, and economic activity.
Some of these images reflect direct observation or information gathered from travelers. Others draw upon the broader body of European knowledge and inherited assumptions about the peoples of the North.
The result is a fascinating mixture of ethnographic documentation, geographical description, and Renaissance visual storytelling.
The map also conveys the importance of maritime commerce. Ships appear throughout the surrounding waters, illustrating the role of navigation, fishing, and trade in the northern economy.
This attention to human activity is one reason the Carta Marina remains so valuable to historians. It offers a visual record of how a sixteenth-century scholar understood the relationship between environment, economy, and culture.
The sea monsters of Olaus Magnus
Perhaps the most immediately recognizable feature of the Carta Marina is its extraordinary collection of marine creatures.
The waters surrounding Scandinavia are filled with whales, serpents, strange fish, and fantastic monsters. Some are represented with considerable attention to anatomical detail, while others appear to belong entirely to the world of mythology.
For modern audiences, these creatures are often the most entertaining aspect of the map. For historians of cartography, however, they provide an important insight into the intellectual environment in which the map was produced.
Sixteenth-century Europeans did not draw a sharp distinction between geographical information, natural history, folklore, and accounts of extraordinary phenomena in the way modern scholars generally do.
Reports of unusual marine animals circulated among sailors, fishermen, merchants, and travelers. Such accounts could become incorporated into geographical literature, especially when they concerned remote regions that few readers had personally visited.
Magnus was particularly interested in the creatures of northern waters. His map includes numerous depictions of marine animals that appear to have been inspired by accounts of real species, although their appearance is sometimes exaggerated.
Some of the larger sea creatures resemble whales, while others may reflect observations of sharks, orcas, and other marine animals.
The map also depicts encounters between creatures and ships, emphasizing the dangers associated with northern navigation.
One especially interesting aspect is that the sea monsters are not simply scattered randomly throughout the water. They often appear in geographical contexts that suggest Magnus was attempting to associate particular creatures with particular maritime regions.
This approach reflects a broader Renaissance interest in mirabilia-wonders or extraordinary things, which were regarded as legitimate subjects of natural history and geographical inquiry.
The creatures on the Carta Marina should therefore not be dismissed simply as evidence of superstition. They reveal how early modern scholars attempted to organize and communicate information about the natural world, including information that could not be independently verified.
The marine illustrations also had a significant influence on later cartographic decoration. Magnus’s representations helped establish a visual tradition of sea monsters on European maps, influencing the way subsequent mapmakers illustrated the oceans.
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The map’s relationship with the Historia de gentibus septentrionalibus
The Carta Marina was not intended to stand entirely on its own. Magnus envisioned a much broader project devoted to explaining the geography, natural history, and cultural characteristics of northern Europe.
In 1555, sixteen years after the map appeared, he published Historia de gentibus septentrionalibus, generally translated as A Description of the Northern Peoples.
This substantial work expanded upon many of the subjects introduced in the map. It included descriptions of northern customs, animals, fishing, hunting, agriculture, climate, warfare, folklore, and everyday life.
The relationship between the two works is particularly important. The map offers a visual geographical framework, while the Historia provides a much more extensive written account of the region.
In many respects, the book can be understood as a companion to the map, expanding its illustrations and explanatory inscriptions into a comprehensive description of the Nordic world.
The Historia also became an important source of information about Scandinavia for readers elsewhere in Europe. It was translated into several languages and circulated widely among scholars.
Uppsala University Library describes the book as the first major description of the Nordic countries and emphasizes the close relationship between it and the earlier map.
The disappearance and rediscovery of the Carta Marina
One of the most remarkable aspects of the Carta Marina is the history of its survival.
Despite its importance, the original 1539 edition appears to have been printed in relatively small numbers. The cost and complexity of producing a nine-sheet woodcut map of this size probably limited its circulation.
The map subsequently became exceedingly rare. By the end of the sixteenth century, the original edition had effectively disappeared from general scholarly awareness.
A smaller reproduction was published in Rome in 1572 by the printer and publisher Antoine Lafréry. This later edition is important because it helped preserve the geographical and illustrative content of Magnus’s work. It is sometimes referred to as the Lafréry edition.
However, the original 1539 woodcut map was not rediscovered until the nineteenth century.
One surviving example was located in Munich in 1886, in the collection now associated with the Bavarian State Library. A second original copy subsequently came to light in Switzerland and was acquired by Uppsala University Library in 1962.
These two surviving examples are exceptionally important. They represent the only known original copies of the 1539 edition and provide modern scholars with access to one of the major achievements of Renaissance cartography.
The Uppsala copy has been particularly important for the study and reproduction of the map. Modern facsimiles have made it possible for historians, collectors, and cartographic enthusiasts to examine the complete work without needing access to the fragile original.
The rediscovery of the map also renewed interest in Olaus Magnus as a significant figure in the history of geographical thought.
The influence of the Carta Marina on later cartography
The influence of the Carta Marina extended well beyond its original publication.
Magnus had produced a geographical representation of northern Europe that was considerably more detailed than many of its predecessors. Later mapmakers could draw upon its information when preparing maps of Scandinavia and the surrounding regions.
Two particularly important figures in the development of European cartography, Gerardus Mercator and Abraham Ortelius, belonged to the generation of mapmakers who worked in the geographical tradition influenced by Magnus.
The map also influenced the visual representation of northern Europe in other settings. Its geographical and illustrative material helped inform large-scale mural maps, including representations of the Nordic countries in the Vatican and Palazzo Vecchio in Florence.
Its influence was not limited to geography. The sea monsters and other creatures became part of the wider visual vocabulary of Renaissance cartography.
The German cartographer Sebastian Münster incorporated animals associated with Magnus’s work into his widely circulated Cosmographia. This helped introduce the imagery of northern marine creatures to a much larger European readership.
The Carta Marina therefore contributed to two important cartographic traditions: the improvement of geographical knowledge about Scandinavia and the development of richly illustrated maps in which natural history and geographical representation were closely intertwined.
It is worth remembering that these two traditions were not considered contradictory. For a sixteenth-century cartographer, an accurate coastline and an illustration of a remarkable sea creature could both be essential components of a geographical work.
Reading the Carta Marina as a historical map
For modern cartographic historians, the Carta Marina offers several different avenues of investigation.
Geographical accuracy: The map provides an opportunity to examine the progress of Scandinavian cartography during the first half of the sixteenth century. Its coastlines, islands, and regional relationships can be compared with earlier representations, particularly those of Jacob Ziegler.
Cartographic production: Its nine-block woodcut construction provides an interesting example of the technical challenges involved in producing monumental printed maps before the development of modern engraving and printing techniques.
Historical geography: The map records place names, regional distinctions, settlements, and geographical features that are valuable for understanding how northern Europe was perceived during the Renaissance.
Cultural geography: Its illustrations of people, animals, transportation, hunting, and commerce provide an unusual visual record of the relationship between northern communities and their environments.
The history of natural history: Its sea monsters and extraordinary creatures demonstrate how geographical works could incorporate folklore, eyewitness accounts, and natural history into a single visual document.
Perhaps most importantly, the map illustrates that cartography is never simply a matter of drawing coastlines and assigning geographical coordinates. Maps also communicate the cultural assumptions, intellectual interests, and expectations of the societies that produce them.
Magnus’s work is particularly revealing in this respect. His map presents Scandinavia not as a distant and relatively unimportant fringe of Europe, but as a region possessing its own geographical complexity, natural wonders, economic activity, and cultural identity.
Where to examine the Carta Marina today
For anyone interested in studying the original map or examining high-quality reproductions, several institutions and publications provide useful starting points.
Uppsala University Library
One of the two institutions holding a surviving original 1539 copy. Its online exhibition provides historical information about Magnus and the map. Explore the Carta Marina exhibition
Library of Congress
Provides access to a digitized example of the 1572 Lafréry edition, a valuable resource for examining the map’s geographical and illustrative content.View the digitized Carta Marina
Bibliothèque nationale de France
Its catalogue documents a full-size facsimile reproduction of the 1539 original, published by Uppsala University Library in 1997.View the bibliographic record
For additional scholarly research, two particularly useful publications are Herman Richter’s Olaus Magnus Carta Marina 1539 (1967) and the chapter on Scandinavian Renaissance cartography in The History of Cartography, Volume 3, published by the University of Chicago Press.
Conclusion: A cartographic portrait of the Renaissance North
The 1539 Carta Marina occupies a special place in the history of cartography because it combines an important advance in geographical representation with an extraordinary visual account of the natural and cultural world.
Olaus Magnus succeeded in producing a map that was both geographically ambitious and artistically remarkable. His representation of Scandinavia and the surrounding seas provided European readers with a much more comprehensive understanding of northern Europe than many earlier maps had offered.
Yet its enduring fascination comes from the combination of geographical information and imaginative illustration. The ships, sea monsters, whales, hunters, reindeer, settlements, and landscapes transform the map into something approaching a visual encyclopedia of the sixteenth-century North.
For the modern cartographic historian, the map is valuable precisely because it preserves this mixture of observation, inherited knowledge, and imagination. It offers a window into a period when geographical science was expanding rapidly, but the boundaries between geography, natural history, folklore, and cultural description remained fluid.
More than four and a half centuries after its publication, the Carta Marina remains one of the most extraordinary examples of Renaissance cartography. It is a map that rewards close examination, not only for what it tells us about the geography of Scandinavia, but also for what it reveals about the people who sought to understand and describe the world around them.
Further reading and research sources
- Uppsala University Library, Carta Marina: Olaus Magnus.
- Library of Congress, Map of the Sea – Carta Marina.
- Herman Richter, Olaus Magnus Carta Marina 1539 (Lund, 1967).
- Edward Lynam, The Carta Marina of Olaus Magnus, Venice 1539 and Rome 1572 (1949).
- H. Thomas Rossby and Peter Miller, Ocean Eddies in the 1539 Carta Marina by Olaus Magnus, Oceanography, 2003.
- The History of Cartography, Volume 3, Scandinavian Renaissance Cartography.
Editorial note: The cartographer’s name is correctly spelled Olaus Magnus, rather than Olaus Magus. The original map dates to 1539; the frequently encountered 1572 version is a later, reduced-size edition published by Lafréry. The distinction matters when identifying original impressions and reproductions.